Spectrographic material analysis using multi-frequency inductive sensing

ABSTRACT

A multi-frequency inductive sensing system can be used for spectrographic material analysis of a conductive target material (such as tissue) based on electrical impedance spectroscopy. An inductive sensor can be driven with an excitation current at multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω) to project a time-varying magnetic field into a sensing area on the surface of the target material, inducing eddy currents within the target material. The inductive sensor can be characterized by a sensor impedance Z(ω) as a function of the sensor excitation frequency (ω), and the resulting induced eddy currents. Multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, at the multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), can be determined, which represent electromagnetic properties of the target material (such as permittivity ε, permeability μ, and resistivity ρ), based on the induced eddy currents. The multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), and corresponding multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, can be selected for particular target penetration depths.

BACKGROUND

1. Technical Field

This Patent Document relates generally to spectrographic analysis ofmaterials, and more particularly to electrical impedance spectroscopy.

2. Related Art

Electrical impedance spectroscopy is a method of analyzing materialproperties based on the electrical impedance of the material as afunction of the frequency of applied electromagnetic radiation.Applications for electrical impedance spectroscopy include chemicalapplications such as detecting bacterial growth in food, and in medicalapplications, such for tissue and blood analysis.

For example, biological tissues exhibit electrical impedance whichvaries with frequency. Tissues contain components with both resistiveand capacitive (charge storage) properties resulting in a complexelectrical impedance. The magnitude of impedance and the dependence ofimpedance on frequency are both functions of the tissue composition.Measuring the impedance of cells across a range of frequencies willgenerate a spectrum that is characteristic of the biological tissue.Changes in the impedance spectrum can therefore be directly related tochanges in the underlying nature of the tissue.

While this Background information is presented in the context ofspecific applications of electrical impedance spectroscopy, the presentDisclosure is not limited to such applications, but is more generallydirected to material analysis based on electrical impedancespectroscopy.

BRIEF SUMMARY

This Brief Summary is provided as a general introduction to theDisclosure provided by the Detailed Description and Drawings,summarizing some aspects and features of the Disclosure. It is not acomplete overview of the Disclosure, and should not be interpreted asidentifying key elements or features of the invention, or otherwisecharacterizing or delimiting the scope of the invention disclosed inthis Patent Document.

The Disclosure describes apparatus and methods for performingspectrographic material analysis of a target material based onelectrical impedance spectroscopy using multi-frequency inductivesensing. For example, the target material can be tissue.

According to aspects of the Disclosure, the methodology for performingspectrographic material analysis of a target material based onelectrical impedance spectroscopy using multi-frequency inductivesensing, can include: (a) driving the inductive sensor with anexcitation current at a sensor excitation frequency (ω); and thereby (b)projecting a time-varying magnetic field into a sensing area on thesurface of the target material, inducing eddy currents within the targetmaterial. The inductive sensor can be characterized by a sensorimpedance Z(ω) that is a function of the sensor excitation frequency(ω), and the resulting eddy currents induced within the target material.The methodology further includes determining, for multiple sensorexcitation frequencies (ω), corresponding multiple sensor impedanceZs(ω) measurements that represent electromagnetic properties of thetarget material based on the induced eddy currents. For example, themethodology can be used to determine target electromagnetic propertiesthat are at least one of: permittivity ε, permeability μ, andresistivity ρ (or its inverse conductivity σ).

According to other aspects of the Disclosure, the multiple sensorexcitation frequencies (ω), and corresponding multiple sensor impedanceZs(ω) measurements, are selected for a target penetration depth, whichrepresent electromagnetic properties of the target material at thetarget penetration depth. According to other aspects of the Disclosure,the methodology is useable in a resonant inductive sensing system thatincludes a resonant sensor including a coil inductor, and characterizedby a sensor impedance Rp=L/(C*Rs), wherein determining, for multiplesensor excitation frequencies (ω), corresponding multiple sensorimpedance Zs(ω) measurements, is accomplished by: (a) generating anegative impedance that counterbalances sensor resonator impedance Rp,such that the generated negative impedance is a function of the eddycurrents induced in the target material (which are reflected in sensorresonator impedance Rp); and (b) converting the generated negativeimpedance into sensor response data corresponding to the sensorresonator impedance Zs(ω) measurements.

Other aspects and features of the invention claimed in this PatentDocument will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the followingDisclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an example functional embodiment of an inductivesensing system used for electrical impedance spectroscopy in analyzingelectromagnetic properties of a target material (material under test)30, based on multi-frequency eddy current sensing, including aninductive sensor 10 implemented as a sensor inductor 11 and sensorelectronics 20 configured to measure sensor impedance at multiplefrequencies, corresponding to electromagnetic properties of the targetmaterial.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example circuit equivalent embodiment of aninductive sensing system for electrical impedance spectroscopy based onmulti-frequency eddy current sensing, including a sensor inductor 11modeled as a transformer primary side, and the eddy currents 31 inducedin target material 30 modeled as a transformer secondary side 33, whichis loaded by the impedance 35 of the target material, and includingsensor electronics 20 configured to measure sensor impedance at multiplefrequencies Zs(ω).

FIG. 3 illustrates an example embodiment of a resonant inductive sensorsystem that includes an LC resonator 110, driven by aninductance-to-digital (IDC) conversion unit 120 that includes a negativeimpedance stage 121 driving excitation current with a negativeimpedance, and a loop control stage 123 that provides a feedback loopcontrol signal 129 that controls negative impedance.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This Description and the Drawings constitute a Disclosure of exampleembodiments and applications that illustrate various features andadvantages of spectrographic material analysis based on electricalimpedance spectroscopy using multi-frequency eddy current sensing tomeasure electromagnetic properties of a material under test.

A problem addressed by the Disclosure is using electrodes toelectrically connect to the material or tissue under test. The contactimpedance of electrodes (capacitive or resistive), corrosion, chemicalreaction between electrode and the material under test, and repulsion ofthe electrode by living tissue make the use of electrodes problematic.

In brief overview, aspects of the Disclosure include the use ofinductive sensing to measure impedance at multiple frequencies(electrical impedance spectroscopy), based on induced (contactless) eddycurrent sensing. The multi-frequency impedance measurements are used todetermine electromagnetic properties of a target material under test(for example, electrical permittivity ε, magnetic permeability μ, andelectrical resistivity ρ (or its inverse electrical conductivity σ)).Example embodiments include an inductive sensing circuit is configuredto project a time-varying magnetic field into a sensing area on thesurface of the target material, inducing eddy currents within the targetmaterial. The inductive sensing circuit includes a sensor including aninductor coil, and sensor electronics configured to drive the sensorinductor coil with an excitation current at a sensor excitationfrequency (ω), generating a corresponding time-varying magnetic fieldprojected to the target material. The sensor can be characterized by asensor impedance Z(ω) that is a function of a sensor excitationfrequency (ω), and the resulting eddy currents induced within the targetmaterial. The sensor electronics is configured to determine, formultiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), corresponding multiplesensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements that represent electromagneticproperties of the target material based on the induced eddy currents. Inother example embodiments, the multiple sensor excitation frequencies(ω), and corresponding multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, areselected for a target penetration depth, which represent electromagneticproperties of the target material at the target penetration depth. Inother example embodiments, the inductive sensing circuit is a resonantinductive sensing circuit, including: (a) a sensor resonator including acoil inductor, and characterized by a sensor impedance Rp=L/(C*Rs); and(b) an inductance-to-digital conversion (IDC) unit configured (1) todrive the sensor resonator with a sensor excitation current at a sensorexcitation frequency (ω); and (2) to generate a negative impedance thatcounterbalances sensor resonator impedance Rp, such that the generatednegative impedance is a function of the eddy currents induced in thetarget material (which are reflected in sensor resonator impedance Rp);and (3) to convert the generated negative impedance into sensor responsedata corresponding to the sensor resonator impedance Zs(ω) measurements.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example functional embodiment of an inductivesensing system used for electrical impedance spectroscopy. An inductivesensor 10 includes a sensor inductor 11 and sensor (readout) electronics20. Inductive sensor 10 is positioned adjacent a target material undertest 30.

Sensor inductor 11 includes a coil 14. Sensor electronics 20 drives asensor excitation current, with a sensor excitation frequency (ω),through sensor inductor/coil 14, generating a time-varying magneticfield 16, which is projected to target material 30. The longitudinaldistance between sensor inductor/coil 14 and the surface of targetmaterial 30 is sufficiently short that the magnetic flux generated bythe inductor/coil is concentrated within a limited area of the targetmaterial surface referred to as a sensing domain 19.

Projected magnetic field 16 induces eddy currents 31 in the surface ofthe target material 30. Eddy currents 31 consist of displacement currentas well conduction current, and hence they depend on the electromagneticproperties of target material being tested, as well as excitationfrequency of the magnetic field generated by inductor/coil 14. Eddycurrents in the target material result in a power loss in the projectedtime-varying magnetic field, and in changes in the mutual inductancebetween the sensor inductor/coil 14 and the eddy currents induced in thetarget material.

As described further in connection with FIG. 2, the effects of eddycurrents 31 induced in target material 30 are sensed by inductive sensor10 as sensor impedance Zs(ω), which is a function of the excitationfrequency of the time-varying magnetic field 16, and electromagneticproperties of the target material (as reflected in the eddy currentsinduced in the target material). Eddy current density exponentiallydecays as it penetrates target material 30, as indicated in FIG. 1.Penetration depth is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{\delta = {\left( \frac{1}{\omega} \right)\left\{ {\left( \frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2} \right)\left\lbrack {\left( {1 + \left( \frac{1}{\rho\omega\varepsilon} \right)^{2}} \right)^{1\text{/}2} - 1} \right\rbrack} \right\}^{{- 1}\text{/}2}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

which is a function of sensor excitation frequency ω (rad/sec.), as wellas electromagnetic properties of target material 30: electricalpermittivity ε, magnetic permeability μ, and electrical resistivity ρ(the inverse of the conductivity σ).

Sensor impedance measurements Rp, corresponding to sensor impedanceZs(ω), are a function of penetration depth given by equation (1).

FIG. 2 illustrates an example circuit equivalent embodiment of theinductive sensing system for electrical impedance spectroscopy based onmulti-frequency eddy current sensing.

Inductive sensor 10 includes sensor inductor 11 with inductor/coil 14,which can be represented as a sensor inductance Ls and a loss factor(series resistance Rs).

Sensor inductor 11 can be modeled as the primary side of a transformer.Target material 30 is illustrated as a circuit equivalent, with theinduced eddy currents 31 modeled as the secondary side 33 of thetransformer, which is loaded by the impedance 35 of the target materialunder test.

The coupling factor M between primary side 14 and secondary side 33 hasa strong dependence on distance (d), and therefore on the penetrationdepth. This penetration depth, illustrated in FIG. 1 and given byequation (1), has a strong non-linear dependence on function of sensorexcitation frequency (ω).

Therefore the electromagnetic properties of target material 30 can bedetermined by measuring the sensor impedance Zs(ω) at multiple sensorexcitation frequencies (ω), and solving for permittivity ε, permeabilityμ, and resistivity ρ (or its inverse conductivity σ):

$\begin{matrix}\left. \begin{matrix}{{{Zs}\left( {\omega \; 1} \right)} = {F\left( {{\omega \; 1},ɛ,\sigma,\mu,d,{Ls},{Rs}} \right)}} \\\vdots \\{{{Zs}\left( {\omega \; n} \right)} = {F\left( {{\omega \; n},ɛ,\sigma,\mu,d,{Ls},{Rs}} \right)}}\end{matrix} \right\} & (2)\end{matrix}$

To extract electrical parameters (like permittivity and resistivity),the multi-frequency sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements can be near afrequency corresponding to a particular penetration depth within thetarget material. For example, for a target penetration depthcorresponding to a lower frequency measurement around 10 MHz, sensorimpedance Zs(ω) measurements around 9 MHz and 11 MHz can be used, whilefor a target penetration depth corresponding to a higher frequencymeasurement around 100 MHz, sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements around95 MHz and 105 MHz can be used.

Note that, because measuring the sensor impedance Zs(ω) at multiplefrequencies induces eddy currents at different skin (penetration)depths, inductive sensing based on multi-frequency eddy current sensingcan be used for spectrographic analysis at different target penetrationdepths within the target material, such as different tissue depths. Forexample, in the case of spectrographic analysis of a tissue target, athigher frequencies (such as 100 Mhz), eddy currents are confined to theupper tissue layer (penetration depth is less), and therefore sensorimpedance Zs(ω) measurements only observe this upper tissue layer. At alower frequency (such as 10 MHz), the skin (penetration) depth becomeslarger, hence eddy currents run deeper, so sensor impedance Zs(ω)measurements observe less of the upper tissue layer, and more of thedeeper tissues.

A calibration cycle can be used to eliminate frequency dependentbehavior of the material analysis system, such as where theelectromagnetic properties of the target material under test have afrequency dependent behavior.

A number of advantages derive from spectrographic material analysisbased on electrical impedance spectroscopy using multi-frequency eddycurrent sensing. Inductive sensing is contactless (noninvasive),avoiding electrode contacts to a material under test, and therebyavoiding chemical or corrosive interaction. A concentrated projectedsense field can be used for a concentrated sensing area. An insulatorcan be used between the material/object/tissue under test.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example embodiment of a resonant inductive sensor100 that can be used for measuring sensor impedance Zs(ω) based on eddycurrent sensing, and therefore for spectrographic material analysisbased on electrical impedance spectroscopy, using multi-frequency eddycurrent sensing.

Resonant inductive sensor 100 includes an LC sensor resonator 110 and aninductance-to-digital conversion (IDC) unit (sensor electronics) 120.Sensor resonator 110 includes a coil inductor 114, and is characterizedby a resistive loss factor Rs, or the circuit equivalent parallel sensorimpedance Rp=L/(C*Rs), which takes into account LC reactive impedance(frequency dependent).

Eddy current sensing for spectrographic material analysis will cause achange in resonator impedance (loss factor Rp) based on electromagneticproperties of a target material under test. This change in resonatorimpedance Zs(ω), is converted by IDC 120 into sensor response data 1/Rp,corresponding to the electromagnetic properties of the target material.

IDC 120 determines resonator impedance Zs(ω) based on the negativeimpedance that counterbalances the positive resonator impedance Rp.Specifically, IDC 120 drives resonator 110 with an AC sensor excitationcurrent, with a sensor excitation frequency (ω) synchronized with theoscillation frequency of the resonator. IDC 120 establishes a negativeimpedance control loop that drives resonator 110 with a negativeimpedance to maintain sustained resonator oscillation bycounterbalancing resonator impedance Rp (loss factor).

The example IDC 120 includes a negative impedance stage 121 and a loopcontrol stage 123. Negative impedance stage 121, interfaced to sensorresonator 110, drives resonator excitation current Idrv1/Idrv2 with aloop-controlled negative impedance, synchronized with resonatoroscillation voltage Vin1/Vin2. Loop control stage 123 monitors averageresonator oscillation amplitude (115), and provides a feedback loopcontrol signal 129 that controls negative impedance to maintainsustained resonator oscillation (in the example IDC, corresponding tomaintaining a substantially constant average resonator oscillationamplitude).

That is, the IDC resonant sensor circuit 120 establishes a negativeimpedance control loop (121/123), that drives the sensor resonator(Idrv1/Idrv2) with a controlled negative impedance (129), that controlsaverage resonator oscillation amplitude to sustain resonatoroscillation. The controlled negative impedance balances resonatorimpedance Rp (loss factor) for sustained resonator oscillation.

The example IDC 120 includes a frequency detector 125 that measures theresonator oscillation frequency for sensor resonator 110. For example,frequency detector 125 can be implemented with a frequency counter.Resonator oscillation frequency can be used to determine inductance forsensor resonator 110 (coil inductor 114), based on the reactive part ofthe sensor impedance. Resonance frequency changes in response to achange in the reactive part of sensor impedance Rp.

IDC 120 outputs sensor response data (1/Rp), corresponding to sensorimpedance Zs(ω), and frequency. Zs(ω) (1/Rp) corresponds to the loopcontrol signal 129 that controls negative impedance that counterbalancessensor impedance Rp. That is, the sensor response data output from IDC120 quantifies changes in negative impedance that counteract changes inresonator impedance Zs(ω) (loss factor).

Resonator impedance Zs(ω) (1/Rp=C/L*Rs), including the reactive part ofthe sensor impedance, reflects the total impedance of the sensor. Assuch, the multi-frequency resonator impedance Zs(ω) measurements can beused to determine electromagnetic properties of the target materialunder test. In particular, while metal targets are inductive, that isnot the case for non-metallic conductive targets such as tissue.

Note that IDC resolution is a significant factor in determining coildiameter. For an example 10 bit IDC, frequency and coil size should bechosen such that the coil diameter is in the range of 5% to 10% of theskin depth.

The Disclosure provided by this Description and the Figures sets forthexample embodiments and applications illustrating aspects and featuresof the invention, and does not limit the scope of the invention, whichis defined by the claims. Known circuits, functions and operations arenot described in detail to avoid obscuring the principles and featuresof the invention. These example embodiments and applications can be usedby ordinarily skilled artisans as a basis for modifications,substitutions and alternatives to construct other embodiments, includingadaptations for other applications.

1. An inductive sensing system, suitable for spectrographic materialanalysis based on electrical impedance spectroscopy, comprising: aninductive sensing circuit; and a conductive target material under test;the inductive sensing circuit configured to project a time-varyingmagnetic field into a sensing area on the surface of the targetmaterial, inducing eddy currents within the target material, andincluding a sensor including an inductor coil, and characterized by asensor impedance Z(ω) that is a function of a sensor excitationfrequency (ω), and the resulting eddy currents induced within the targetmaterial; and sensor electronics configured to drive the sensor inductorcoil with an excitation current at a sensor excitation frequency (ω),generating a corresponding time-varying magnetic field projected to thetarget material; and to determine, for multiple sensor excitationfrequencies (ω), corresponding multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω)measurements that represent electromagnetic properties of the targetmaterial based on the induced eddy currents.
 2. The system of claim 1,wherein the electromagnetic properties are at least one of: permittivityε, permeability μ, and resistivity ρ (or its inverse conductivity σ). 3.The system of claim 1, wherein each sensor impedance measurement Zs(ω)is a function of the induced eddy current and associated targetpenetration depth:$\delta = {\left( \frac{1}{\omega} \right)\left\{ {\left( \frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2} \right)\left\lbrack {\left( {1 + \left( \frac{1}{\rho\omega\varepsilon} \right)^{2}} \right)^{1\text{/}2} - 1} \right\rbrack} \right\}^{{- 1}\text{/}2}}$which is a function of sensor excitation frequency (ω), andelectromagnetic properties of the target material: electricalpermittivity ε, magnetic permeability μ, and electrical resistivity ρ(the inverse of the conductivity σ).
 4. The system of claim 3, whereinthe multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), and correspondingmultiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, are selected for a targetpenetration depth, which represent electromagnetic properties of thetarget material at the target penetration depth.
 5. The system of claim1, wherein the inductive sensing circuit is a resonant inductive sensingcircuit, including: a sensor resonator including a coil inductor, andcharacterized by a sensor impedance Rp=L/(C*Rs); and aninductance-to-digital conversion (IDC) unit configured to drive thesensor resonator with a sensor excitation current at a sensor excitationfrequency (ω); and to generate a negative impedance that counterbalancessensor resonator impedance Rp, such that the generated negativeimpedance is a function of the eddy currents induced in the targetmaterial (which are reflected in sensor resonator impedance Rp); and toconvert the generated negative impedance into sensor response datacorresponding to the sensor resonator impedance Zs(ω) measurements. 6.The system of claim 1, wherein the target material is tissue.
 7. Aresonant inductive sensing system, suitable for spectrographic materialanalysis based on electrical impedance spectroscopy, comprising: aresonant inductive sensing circuit; and a conductive target materialunder test; the resonant inductive sensing circuit configured to projecta time-varying magnetic field into a sensing area on the surface of thetarget material, inducing eddy currents within the target material, andincluding a sensor resonator including a coil inductor, andcharacterized by a sensor impedance Rp=L/(C*Rs) that is a function of asensor excitation frequency (ω), and the resulting eddy currents inducedwithin the target material; and an inductance-to-digital conversion(IDC) unit configured to drive the sensor resonator with an excitationcurrent at the sensor excitation frequency (ω), generating thecorresponding time-varying magnetic field projected to the targetmaterial; to generate, for multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), anegative impedance that counterbalances sensor resonator impedance Rp,such that the generated negative impedance is a function of the eddycurrents induced in the target material (which are reflected in sensorresonator impedance Rp); and to convert, for the multiple sensorexcitation frequencies (ω), the corresponding generated negativeimpedance into multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements thatrepresent electromagnetic properties of the target material based on theinduced eddy currents.
 8. The system of claim 7, wherein theelectromagnetic properties are at least one of: permittivity ε,permeability μ, and resistivity ρ (or its inverse conductivity σ). 9.The system of claim 7, wherein each sensor impedance measurement Zs(ω)is a function of the induced eddy current and associated targetpenetration depth:$\delta = {\left( \frac{1}{\omega} \right)\left\{ {\left( \frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2} \right)\left\lbrack {\left( {1 + \left( \frac{1}{\rho\omega\varepsilon} \right)^{2}} \right)^{1\text{/}2} - 1} \right\rbrack} \right\}^{{- 1}\text{/}2}}$which is a function of sensor excitation frequency (ω), andelectromagnetic properties of the target material: electricalpermittivity ε, magnetic permeability μ, and electrical resistivity ρ(the inverse of the conductivity σ).
 10. The system of claim 9, whereinthe multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), and correspondingmultiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, are selected for a targetpenetration depth, which represent electromagnetic properties of thetarget material at the target penetration depth.
 11. The system of claim7, wherein the target material is tissue.
 12. A method of performingspectrographic material analysis of a target material based onelectrical impedance spectroscopy, the method suitable for use in aninductive sensing system that includes an inductive sensor with a coilinductor, comprising driving the inductive sensor with an excitationcurrent at a sensor excitation frequency (ω); and thereby projecting atime-varying magnetic field into a sensing area on the surface of thetarget material, inducing eddy currents within the target material;wherein the inductive sensor is characterized by a sensor impedance Z(ω)that is a function of the sensor excitation frequency (ω), and theresulting eddy currents induced within the target material; anddetermining, for multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω),corresponding multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements thatrepresent electromagnetic properties of the target material based on theinduced eddy currents.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein theelectromagnetic properties are at least one of: permittivity ε,permeability μ, and resistivity ρ (or its inverse conductivity σ). 14.The method of claim 1, wherein each sensor impedance measurement Zs(ω)is a function of the induced eddy current and associated targetpenetration depth:$\delta = {\left( \frac{1}{\omega} \right)\left\{ {\left( \frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2} \right)\left\lbrack {\left( {1 + \left( \frac{1}{\rho\omega\varepsilon} \right)^{2}} \right)^{1\text{/}2} - 1} \right\rbrack} \right\}^{{- 1}\text{/}2}}$which is a function of sensor excitation frequency (ω), andelectromagnetic properties of the target material: electricalpermittivity ε, magnetic permeability μ, and electrical resistivity ρ(the inverse of the conductivity σ).
 15. The method of claim 14, whereinthe multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω), and correspondingmultiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, are selected for a targetpenetration depth, which represent electromagnetic properties of thetarget material at the target penetration depth.
 16. The method of claim12, wherein the method is useable in a resonant inductive sensing systemthat includes a resonant sensor including a coil inductor, andcharacterized by a sensor impedance Rp=L/(C*Rs), and: whereindetermining, for multiple sensor excitation frequencies (ω),corresponding multiple sensor impedance Zs(ω) measurements, isaccomplished by: generating a negative impedance that counterbalancessensor resonator impedance Rp, such that the generated negativeimpedance is a function of the eddy currents induced in the targetmaterial (which are reflected in sensor resonator impedance Rp); andconverting the generated negative impedance into sensor response datacorresponding to the sensor resonator impedance Zs(ω) measurements. 17.The method of claim 12, wherein the target material is tissue.